AJ 319 Assignments/ Lecture Materials
Module 1 Discussions forum in etudes.org
Your introduction:
What is your name?
What is your educational goal?
What is your professional goal?
Answer these questions in etudes.org. Each student has an etudes account to access this information.
Research Paper- "Topic"
Your assignment will be to write 1 or 2 paragraphs on a research topic that you are interested in. The topic must be in criminal justice system and it really should interest you.
This topic will later be used to focus you on your research. So, give your thoughts so I can help you organize your thoughts throughout the semester
Module 2
Research Methods PP presentation (Students requested this be posted)
Introduce your topic Introduction most crucial part of your essay is the
“Introduction” It explains: How well your thoughts are put together How well organized your entire essay is If they don’t like what they see...well, they probably won’t read any further Introduction Research;
Notes and outline First, do some initial research, which should establish what it is you will be writing about, What issue you will argue for or against, and why you will take this position Research Then actively research by taking notes on your topic. Research Outline the ideas and arguments that you will make so that you’ll know what to include in your introduction. Mind mapping you should be able to roughly outline three to five ideas or arguments that you can successfully address in your research Indicate your topic you need to clearly indicate the topic (i.e., the subject matter) that you will be writing about.
Be careful that you do not confuse your topic with your thesis. you will need to briefly explain or define marijuana, because that is your topic. Foundation Set the foundation for the structure. After you have clearly stated your topic, you will need to address how you’ve organized the body of your essay. Foundation You should use the notes and outline you made during your initial research write a few sentences explaining the order in which your essay will be structured Foundation.
This will be your readers’ road map They will know where they will be going as they read and in what order your ideas will be presented. Thesis Writing the thesis; The thesis statement is where you will let your readers know what position you will take on your topic. Thesis don’t be shy: make a bold and factual statement that expresses your position. Introduction Details
An introduction must not be so detailed that it includes everything you want to say. However; Remember that you’re just introducing an idea or topic. Introduction A general rule to follow is that the introduction should be about 10% (or less) of your whole paper. Be Creative An introduction should be structured and follow a format, but that does not mean it has to be boring. Creative Make your reader want to read the entire essay. Creative Start with a quote that is related to your topic, and make sure it's a powerful attention getter Creative Start with a question, perhaps a question you had yourself before you began your initial research. Creative Begin with an interesting fact that is related to your topic. Creative Use an analogy, but make sure it is concise and easy to understand. You don't want to get too lengthy, because remember, your introduction should only be about 10% of your entire essay. Creative Try presenting a paradox or contradiction if it is related to your topic; readers are interested in the unusual and seemingly unanswerable.
Module 3
Basic Research Terms }Social Scientific Theory }Social scientific theory has to do with what is, not what it should be… }
Theory, Not Philosophy or Belief } A theory; –is a systematic explanation for the observed facts and laws that relate to a particular aspect of life
Field Research - –The direct observation of events in progress, it is frequently used to develop theories; Such as; survey research- used to reveal patterns to provide explanations. }Field Research }Once developed, can provide general statements about social life that are used to guide research. }
A theory from burglaries; more likely to break into nearby houses because they had become more familiar with the geographical area.) }
Hypothesis
A hypothesis is an expectation about the nature of things derived from a theory- } }Or a theory might contain the hypothesis “high school dropouts will have a higher delinquency rates compared to youths enrolled in high school. }This hypothesis can be tested through research. }Variables and Attributes }Attributes ◦Are characteristics or qualities that describe some object, such as a person –Married –Unemployed –Prisoners }Variables & Attributes }Variables ◦Are logical grouping of attributes –Males and females are attributes –Gender is the variable
Variables & Attributes }The variable occupation is composed of attributes such as a ◦Dentist ◦Professor ◦Truck driver }Variables & Attributes }A prior criminal record is a variable composed of a set of attributes such as; ◦Prior convictions ◦Prior arrests with convictions ◦Prior arrests without convictions ◦No prior arrests }Some Common Criminal Justice Concepts }Female }Probation }Thief }Gender }Sentence }Middle-aged }Auto theft }Occupation }2 different kinds of concept } }Variables }Attributes }2 different kinds of concepts }Variables } }2 different kinds of concepts }Attribute } } Female Probation Auto theft Thief }Variables and Relationships }A person’s attributes on one variable are expected to cause or encourage a particular attribute on another variable. }Variables and Relationships }A public defender seemed to cause a person to be sentenced to probation or prison. } }There is something about having a public defender rather to going to court with out one. ◦This is called a dependent variable. }Variables and Relationships }An independent variable; is sentence depends on the type of defense attorney. }Variables and Relationships Your theory is constructed in terms of variables.
It describes the associations that might logically be expected to exist between particular attributes of different variables.
Module 4
Agency Records, Secondary Data, Content Analysis
Introduction -Agency records, are considered secondary data, and content analysis do not require direct interaction with research subjects.
Criminal justice research uses data collected by state and local agencies such as courts, probation officers, corrections departments, juvenile authorities.
Content analysis research examining class of social artifacts, written documents or other types of messages.
Information collected by others is frequently used in criminal justice research, these are secondary analysis.
National institute of justice releases their data for public use. Usually this data is conducted by others. Someone else gathers the original data, usually for purpose that is different than our.
Content Analysis -data from agency records or archive may have originally been gathered in one of two ways
1. Published statistics and agency records are most common. BJS Bureau of Justice Statistics (prison populations)
2. Consumer Network Data Book. Summarizes known cases of identity theft and related fraud
Content Analysis
Sex offenders (Berenson and Appelbaum 2010)
Incarceration and general populations James Austin and associates (2007) Perception of crime problems individual behavior and criminal justice policy (Anderson and Bushman 2002)
Content Analysis - Recovery life history data -National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS)
Types of Agency Records - Researchers use a variety of published statistics and non-public agency records.
They fall in the following categories
Types of Agency Records
Published statistics
Nonpublic agency records
New data collected by agency staff for a specific research purpose
Published Statistics
Census Bureau
FBI
Administrative office of U.S. Courts
Federal Bureau of prisons
Census Bureau- (sampling surveys from other federal organizations)
Bureau of Justice Statistics
Published Statistics
Federal Criminal Case Processing- details on federal court activity.
Sourcebook of criminal Justice statistics- Summarized hundreds of criminal justice agencies, tables, and how states execute capital offenders.
Source book available on the web at www.albany.edu/sourcebook)
Published Statistics
Correctional Populations- examine trends in prison populations over time.
Uniform Crime Report –(UCR)
Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN)
Drug Use Forecasting (DUF)
Reliability & Validity
Understanding the details of how agency records are collected is the best guard against reliability and validity problems.
Fortunately, most published reports are regular data series and present basic information on definitions and collection procedure
Agency data are not designed for research. Agencies tend to collect data for their own use not for the use of researchers. Summary
Data in records produced by formal organizations may be the most common source of data in criminal justice research.
Many public organizations produce statistics and data for public record, and this data are often useful for criminal justice research.
Organizations keep nonpublic records for internal operation purposes, and these records are viable sources of data for criminal justice research.
Although agency records have many potential research uses, because they are not produced for purposes other than researched the may be unsuitable for a specific study.
The advantages and disadvantages of using secondary data or similar to those for agency records data produced and collected by a researcher may not match our needs.
End
Module 5
—Social Science Research —Involves three fundamental aspects ¡Theory ¡Data Collection and ¡Data analysis —Social Science Research —Social science theory addresses what is, ¡not what should be. —Social Science Research —Theory guides research. In grounded theory observations contribute to theory development. —Social Science Research —Social scientists are interested in explaining aggregates, not individuals (aggregates; collective, total , comprehensives)
—Social Science Research —Although social scientists observe people, they are primarily interested in discovering relationships that connect variables. (Variables- able or liable to change)
—Social Science Research —Explanations may be; — idiographic- ÷Idio (unique) —Nomothethic ÷To explain efficiently using one or a few explanatory factors —Social Science Research —Theories may be; Inductive or Deductive ¡Inductive- moves from being the specific to the general. From a set of particular observations to the discovery of a pattern that represents some degree of order among the varied events under examination. —Social Science Research —Deductive- reasoning- moves from the general to the specific; it moves from a pattern that might be logical or expected, to observations that test whether the expected pattern actually occur in the real world. —Social Science Research —Both Inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning are valid avenues for criminal justice research. —Social Science Research —Theories may be inductive or deductive —Data may be quantitative or qualitative ¡Quantitative; makes our observations and converts them to a numerical form. ¡Qualitative; if we say someone is witty - qualitative —Social Science Research Most explanatory social research uses a probabilistic model of causation.
X may be said to cause Y
If it is seen to have some influence on Y.
—Social Science Research —Three basic requirements to determine a causal relationship in scientific research ¡1 the independent variable must occur before the dependent variable. ¡2 the independent and dependent variables must be (empirically- observation materials) related to each other. ¡3the observation relationship cannot be explained away as the effect of another variable (something else) —Social Science Research —When scientists consider whether causal statements are true or false, they are concerned with the validity of causal inferences (assumption). —Social Science Research —A scientific realist approach to examining mechanisms in a idiographic and nomothethic approaches to causation. ÷Idiographic-Idio (unique)- ¢Nomothethic •
To explain efficiently using one or a few explanatory factors — — —Social Science Research —Units of analysis are the people or things who's characteristics researchers observe, describe and explain.
•The unit of analysis in criminal justice research is often the individual person, but it could also be a group, organization or social artifact. —Social Science Research —Researchers sometimes confuse units of analysis, resulting in ecological (natural) fallacy or the individualistic fallacy. —Social Science Research —Cross –sectional studies are those based on the observations made at one time. ÷Although such studies are limited by this characteristic, differences can often be made without processes that occur over time. —Social Science Research —Longitudinal studies are those which observations are made at many times. ÷- Such observations may be made of sample drawn from general populations were drawn from more specific sub-populations. --
Social Science Research —Retrospective studies can sometimes approximate longitudinal studies, but retrospective approaches must be used with care. —End --
Module 6
¨Evaluation Research and ¨Problem Analysis ¨Evaluation Research ¨Sometimes called program evaluation ¤Refers to the research purpose rather an a specific research method (The reason behind the search) ¨Evaluation Research ¨To evaluate effects of policy such as
Mandatory arrests for domestic violence Or sentencing laws ¨Evaluation Research ¨Another type of Evaluation Research is; Problem analysis helps public officials plan and select alternative actions for their programs.
Evaluation Research ¨Criminal justice agencies are expected to justify the effectiveness and cost of their actions. ¨Research ¨Justice agencies are linked to evidence used for planning and evaluation. ¨and have come to rely more on evidence based policy.
Research ¨Problem oriented guides summarized evidence concerning responses by police and others to problems.
Rapes on college campuses
Locations and circumstances of crimes problems
corrections, policies are increasing evaluated to sort out those that do in fact reduce re-offenders. ¨ ¨
Problem Analysis and evaluation research are used to develop justice policy and determine its impact.
¨Policy Process ¨Policy Process ¨Policy ¨Starts with a demand for a new policy or change an existing policy-
Newspaper stories about drug sentencing policies ¨ ¨Does out prosecutor seek equality in sentencing recommendations for white and African American drug defendants. ¨ ¨Who will review the sentencing recommendations ¨Where will they sit ¨What equipment will they use ¨How much time will it take them to review each report ¨Policy Outputs ¨Refers to what is actually produced ¨Final Stage ¨Question
Does the prosecutor’s review process actually eliminate disparities in sentencing? ¨ Policy impacts are fundamentally related to policy goal
Outputs embody the means to achieve desired policy goal
¨Policy Model ¨Simple cause and affect process ¨Policies ¨Policies are formulated to produce an effect or impact ¨ ¨If some policy action is taken, then we can expect some result to be produced. ¨ ¨Peter Rossi and associates (1999, 4: emphasis in original) define program evaluation as ¨ ¨“the use of social science research procedures to systematically assess the effectiveness of a social program. More specifically, evaluation researchers use social research methods to study, appraise and help improve social programs in all their aspects, including the diagnosis of social problems they address, their conceptualization and design, their implementation and administration , their outcomes and their efficiency.” ¨Program Evaluation ¨1. Are policies being implemented as planned? ¨2. Are policies achieving their intended goals'? ¨ ¨Assessment 1. Goals
What is the program intended to accomplish?
How do staff determine how well they have attained their goes?
Which goal/objective have been identified?
What measures of performance are currently used?
Are adequate measures available?
¨Assessment 2. Clients
¨Who is served by the program? ¨How do they come to participate? ¨Do they differ in systematic ways from nonparticipants? ¨Assessment 3. Organization and Operation
•Where are the services provided? ¨Are there important differences among sites? ¨Who provides the services? ¨What individuals or groups oppose the program or have been critical or it in the past? ¨
Assessment ¨4. History ¤How long has the program been operation? ¤How did the program come about? ¤Has the program grown or diminished in size and influence? ¤Have any significant changes occurred in the program recently? ¨Problem Analysis ¨
Problem Analysis and Scientific Realism- Problem Analysis coupled with scientific realism, helps public officials use research to select and assess alternative course of action. ¨Problem Analysis ¨Program evaluation differs from problem analysis- Problem analysis- time dimension, & where each activity takes place n ¨Problem Evaluation ¨Program Evaluation- Designs used in basic research are readily adapted for use for a program. Questions What kind of people do you arrest for misdemeanor domestic assault? Which kinds of people do you think would have higher risks of repeated violence? ¤ ¨Analysis ¨time dimension ¨where each activity takes place ¨Evaluation ¨Questions and ¨Answers ¨
Descriptions of APA formatting decisions
The title page should have the title of the paper centered on the page. The Short Title and page number appear at the top right of the title page. The student's name appears one double-space below the title. The institutional affiliation (name of the college or high-school for which the paper has been written) appears one double-space below student name.
The Short Title and the number 2 are typed in the upper right-hand corner of the page. The word Abstract is centered as the first line of type on this page.
The title of the paper appears (centered) one double-space below the Short Title. The first line of the body of the paper appears one double-space below the title.
Type the word References (Reference in the case of only one) centered at the top of the page. Double-space all reference entries. The initial line of each entry is indented about half an inch (hanging indent style).Headings
Probably three levels of headings will suffice for most college and high-school papers. (Notice the double-spacing within the headings. Bold and other font variants [color, fancy fonts, etc.] are neither required nor appropriate.)
The First Level, Centered with
Uppercase and Lowercase Typing
Second Level, Flush-Left, Underlined Headings
To double-space after a punctuation mark defeats that capability. If you are using a mono-space font (such as Courier), you may consider using two spaces after end-periods and colons, but consult your instructor first.
Exceptions:
· No space after internal periods in abbreviations (a.m., i.e., U.S.).
· No space after the colon in ratios (6:1)
Spacing and Punctuation
The APA Publication Manual now calls for one space to appear after all punctuation marks. This is undoubtedly in response to the capabilities of modern word-processing devices to determe the correct aesthetic distance between punctuation marks and subsequent letters. To double-space after a punctuation mark defeats that capability. If you are using a mono-space font (such as Courier), you may consider using two spaces after end-periods and colons, but consult your instructor first.
Exceptions:
· No space after internal periods in abbreviations (a.m., i.e., U.S.).
· No space after the colon in ratios (6:1)
Handling Quoted Material
· Short quotations (fewer than 40 words) are incorporated into the text and enclosed by double quotations marks (").
· Long quotations of 40 or more words are displayed in a double-spaced block of typewritten lines with no quotation marks. The APA suggests that you do not single space; however, some instructors will require that indented quotations be single-spaced, especially when quoting poetry, which loses some of its formal characteristics when double-spaced. Indent five spaces from the left margin and type the entire quotation on the indented margin without the usual opening paragraph indentation. If the quotation is more than one paragraph, indent the first line of the second and additional paragraphs five spaces from the already indented margin, approximately an inch from the left margin.
· If you have a quotation within a block quotation, enclose it in double (") quotation marks. If you have a quotation within a short quote (one incorporated within the text), enclose it within single quotation marks (').
· Ellipsis points are used to indicate omitted material. Type three periods with a space before and after each period to indicate omission within a sentence (…). To indicate an omission between sentences type a punctuation mark for the sentence followed by three spaced periods (. …) (? …) (! …). Your date processing software probably provides especially typed characters that will create ellipses that will not be broken, inappropriately, at the end of a line.
· When a period or comma occurs with closing quotation marks, place the period or comma within the closing quotation mark. Put any other punctuation mark outside the quotation marks unless that mark is part of the quoted material.
Making Corrections on the Manuscript
Nowadays, with the use of modern word processing equipment, making corrections after something is printed is usually unnecessary. Your paper should be — essentially — perfect. Do not sacrifice entire forests to avoid inserting a comma, however!
· Do not use correction paper, fluid, or tape to cover and type over an error.
· Insert a typed correction directly above the word or line to be corrected (not in the margin).
· Retype the page if it has many corrections.
· Renumber the pages if a page must be inserted or removed after the numbering is completed.
· Do not number inserted pages with, for example, "4a."
· Do not type vertically in the margin.
· Do not strike over a letter.
· Do not type inserts on slips and attach them to pages.
· Do not write on the manuscript.
ABOUT REFERENCES
Single-Author Book
& Part of a Book Alverez, A. (1970). The savage god: A study of suicide. New York: Random House.
Garner, B. A. (2003). Garner's Modern American Usage. New York: Oxford University Press.
Reference: Book with Two or More Authors Natarajan, R., & Chaturvedi, R. (2003). Geology of the Indian Ocean Floor. Hartford, CT: Merganser University Press.
Ligon, M., Carpenter, K., Brown, W., & Milsop, A. (1983). Computers in the world of business communications. Hartford, CT: Capital Press.
Book Without Author or Editor Listed Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary. (1961). Springfield, MA: G. & C. Merriam.
Multi-Volume Work Nadeau, B. M. & Darling, J. M. (Eds.). (1994–2003). Studies in the history of cutlery (Vols. 4–6). Utica, NY: Mohican Valley-River Press.
What if I'm using a quote that I discover in a SECONDARY RESOURCE
Secondary Resources O'Connor, C. O. & DeLoatch, K. L. (2003). Whatever happened to the humanities? In I. Rubenzahl (Ed.), Studies in Byzantine Intrigue (pp. 235–278). Hartford, CT: Merganser University Press.
Dictionary Shorter Oxford English dictionary (5th ed.).(2002). New York: Oxford University Press.
Reference: Dissertation or Dissertation Abstract When you have used an abstract of the dissertion found on microfilm in Dissertation Abstracts International (DAI). If you are using a microfilm source, include in parentheses at the end of your entry, the university microfilm number.
Darling, C. W. (1976). Giver of due regard: the poetry of Richard Wilbur. Dissertation Abstracts International, 44, 4465. (AAD44-8794)
Enrollment Classroom Lecture Like personal interviews and phone conversations, material presented in a classroom lecture is regarded as non-retrievable data. A lecture, therefore, should be cited within the text but not be included in your References. The model below could also be used for more formal lecture settings.
In an Introduction to Literature lecture at Capital Community College on April 14, 2004, Professor Charles Darling described William Carlos Williams' poem as a barnyard snapshot (C.W. Darling, ENG 102 lecture, April 14, 2004).
If the lecturer distributed material at the lecture, you could cite that resource in your References:
Darling, C.W. (2004, April). Images at Work in the Poetry of William Carlos Williams. Outline presented in a classroom lecture at Capital Community College, Hartford, CT.
Electronic and Online Resources
Electronic correspondences, such as e-mail or discussions on bulletin boards or discussion groups, is regarded by the APA as personal communication (like phone conversations or memos), because it is not recoverable by others. Personal communications are cited only within the text and not on the reference page.
However, if the information is, in fact, retrievable, the following elements are necessary for the reference page:
Author(s), I. (date —or "n.d." if not date is posted). Title of work. (Online), date retrieved. Name of Database or Internet address of the specific document. Specify URLexactly. [Do not end your entry with a period when ending with an URL.]
The date should be the year of publication or the most recent update. If the date of the source cannot be determined, provide the exact date you retrieved the information on the Internet.
The path information should be sufficient for someone else to retrieve the material. For example, specify the method used to find the material: the protocol (HTTP, Telnet, FTP, etc.), the directory, and the file name. Do not end the path statement with a period after a file name or Web address.
You can cite an entire Web site within your text, but do not include it in your list of References. For instance, you could say something incredibly profound you learned from this Web page, and cite the URL at the end of the paragraph (http://www.ccc.commnet.edu/apa/). If a line-break is necessary when you cite an URL, make the break immediately after a slash mark and carefully avoid the insertion of a hyphen where none is appropriate.
Electronic Database
Reference: Government Documents
Report from the Government Printing Office, corporate author.
Example:
National Institute of Mental Health. (1982). Television and behavior: Ten years of scientific progress (DHHS Publication No. A 82-1195). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Reports from a Document and Deposit Service (NTIS, ERIC) other than U.S. government
Examples:
Tandy, S. (1980). Development of behavioral techniques to control hyperaggressiveness in young children (CYC Report No. 80-3562). Washington, DC: Council on Young Children. (NTIS No. P880-14322).
Gottfredson, L. S. (1980). How valid are occupational reinforcer pattern scores? (Report No. CSOS-R-292). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University. Center for Social Organization of Schools. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 182 465)
Annotated Bibliography An annotated bibliography will have the same basic layout as a Reference page. There are three major differences, however. First, you can include in your bibliography works that you think would be useful to your reader that you might not have used in the writing of this particular paper or article. Second, you can break down the references into useful categories and arrange those categories in ways that you think would be helpful to your reader. Third, you can add commentary to the references, telling your reader the particular virtues (or, if necessary, the shortcomings) of that resource. Commentaries should be concise, economical summaries, written in sentence fragments; if related, fragments should be connected with semicolons. The commentary should begin on a new line, indented slightly from the preceding line.
Example:
National Institute of Mental Health. (1982). Television and behavior: Ten years of scientific progress (DHHS Publication No. A 82-1195). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Parenthetical Citation
The APA system of citing sources indicates the author's last name and the date, in parentheses, within the text of your paper.
A. A typical citation of an entire work consists of the author's name and the year of publication.
Example:
Charlotte and Emily Bronte were polar opposites, not only in their personalities but in their sources of inspiration for writing (Taylor, 1990).
Use the last name only in both first and subsequent citations, except when there is more than one author with the same last name. In that case, use the last name and the first initial.
B. If the author is named in the text, only the year is cited.
Example:
According to Irene Taylor (1990), the personalities of Charlotte. . .
C. If both the name of the author and the date are used in the text, parenthetical reference is not necessary.
Example:
In a 1989 article, Gould explains Darwin's most successful. . .
D. Specific citations of pages or chapters follow the year.
Example:
Emily Bronte "expressed increasing hostility for the world of human relationships, whether sexual or social" (Taylor, 1988, p. 11).
E. When the reference is to a work by two authors, cite both names each time the reference appears.
Example:
Sexual-selection theory often has been used to explore patters of various insect mating (Alcock & Thornhill, 1983) … Alcock and Thornhill (1983) also demonstrate …
F. When the reference is to a work by three to five authors, cite all the authors the first time the reference appears. In a subsequent reference, use the first author's last name followed by et al. (meaning "and others").
Example of a subsequent reference:
Patterns of byzantine intrigue have long plagued the internal politics of community college administration in Texas (Douglas et al., 1997)
When the reference is to a work by six or more authors, use only the first author's name followed et al. in the first and all subsequent reference. The only exceptions to this rule are when some confusion might result because of similar names or the same author being cited. In that case, cite enough authors so that the distinction is clear.
G. When the reference is to a work by a corporate author, use the name of the organization as the author.
Example:
Retired officers retain access to all of the university's educational and recreational facilities (Columbia University, 1987, p. 54).
H. Personal letters, telephone calls, and other material that cannot be retrieved are not listed in References but are cited in the text.
Example:
Jesse Moore (telephone conversation, April 17, 1989) confirmed that the ideas. …
I. Parenthetical references may mention more than one work, particularly when ideas have been summarized after drawing from several sources. Multiple citations should be arranged as follows.
Examples:
1. List two or more works by the same author in order of the date of publication:
(Gould, 1987, 1989)
2. Differentiate works by the same author and with the same publication date by adding an identifying letter to each date:
(Bloom, 1987a, 1987b)
3. List works by different authors in alphabetical order by last name, and use semicolons to separate the references:
(Gould, 1989; Smith, 1983; Tutwiler, 1989).
Difference Between MLA and APA • Categorized under Language | Difference Between MLA and APA
MLA vs. APA
There are distinct styles of writing research papers that are followed across the world. Most of the researchers follow mainly two types of writing format, namely MLA and APA. While research papers in the Humanities and Liberal Arts adhere to the MLA style, the papers in Social Sciences follow the APA style of writing.
What is the difference between these two styles? An APA style research paper includes the following sections: Title page, Abstract, Main Body and References. The Title page contains the paper title, byline and the institute/organization to which the author is affiliated to. The APA guidelines also emphasizes on the use of running head and page numbers on the Title page.
The Abstract begins with a new page. The title ‘Abstract’ should be written in the centre of the page. The Page Header should appear by default on the Abstract page. The content on this page should provide a concise summary of the key topics in the paper with a word count not exceeding 200. It is also a good practice to list the keywords at the end of the Abstract.
While writing the Main Body, the focus should be on the visual appeal of the content. The APA guidelines suggest usage of tables and graphs and other visual aids that are easy to decipher to support the content.
The Reference section should contain an alphabetical listing of all references that the author consulted during the research. The list of references must have a title which should be centered from the top of the page and should be double spaced.
In contrary to the APA style, the MLA style of writing doesn’t encourage the use of a separate Title page. The upper left-hand corner of the first page should contain the names of the author, instructor and the course apart from the date. The MLA guidelines emphasize on the use of double-spaced text in the first page.
The page numbers should appear on the upper right hand corner. The MLA style of writing encourages the use of numbered section headings in the main content. The list of references is provided in the Works Cited page after the content pages. The references are numbered and the author’s last name should be alphabetized. Here again, the use of double-spaced text is encouraged. The reference title should be underlined or enclosed in quotation marks.
Both MLA and APA styles of writing have their own unique features. There are researchers who advocate the MLA style of writing because it helps in easier organization of content and is the most common style used. However, there are also researchers who prefer the APA style because it focuses on presenting important scientific literature in a professional way.
Summary:
1.MLA style is preferred in Humanities and Liberal Arts category whereas APA style is used in Social Sciences.
2.MLA style does not include separate title page while APA style provides a separate title page.
3.References are listed in Work Cited page in MLA style whereas the APA style has a Reference page.
4.APA style focuses on supporting the content with visual aids whereas MLA style does not advocate the use of such aids.
Module 7
Begin Research Project-
Rubric for individual presentations/Written work/Tests
1. DEVELOPING- 1 to 3
(Student needs assistance with written or oral communications of their expressions of thought, no specific point of view is identified in presentation and expression of content is limited.)
2. EMERGING- 4 to 6
(Student provides a written or oral communications point, his/her point of view is identified, changes direction in thoughts, has limited expressions on content.)
3.ADVANCED- 7 to 9
(Student has a strong written or oral communications point of view, a convincing position and provides presentation elements with clarity of expression.)
Your Answers it to include:
Articulate facts with proper format and grammar, on which resource codes were used to cite proper probable cause progression.
a. Outline a progression from scholarly resources and related resource code books to develop proper probable cause progression as to affect an arrest with exceptions.
b. Use APA writing format
c. Insert citations, and number sources
d. References obtained from Scholarly sources
e. Use a minimum of 500 words to present your answer.
Grading Criteria for all work submitted- Written or Oral presentations
Emerging 1-3
New, novice demonstration of competency, many areas for skill development
Developing 4-6
Demonstrates some level of competency and areas for skill development
Advanced 7-9
Demonstrates significant level of competency and few areas for development
Presentation/ Mechanics- Required length, font, spelling, paragraph structure.
So many errors that it detract from the quality of the paper. The message is lost and no relevancy is associated with the topic.
Mechanical errors in many areas, interferes with topic and presentation.
Paper is free from errors. Meaning is clearly stated and presented with skill and clarity.
Content/
Information
All elements of the topic are discussed and presented.
None or some elements of the topic are discussed. None or some consideration given to major points.
Some topic areas are discussed however lacks all elements sufficient to discuss the topic.
Identified all elements of the topic are discussed. Provided practical knowledge of materials and presented in a coherent way.
Resources/
References
A reference list is used with articles used
Less than 3 references used in APA format.
Less than 5 references used in APA format.
More than 5 references used in APA format.
Plagiarism
No plagiarized papers will be accepted.
PowerPoint presentation "Asking Questions"
How questions are asked is the single most important feature of survey research.
— Survey Research
— Open-ended questions
¡ What do you feel is the most important crime problem facing the police department
— Closed-ended questions
¡ Useful for responses that you can put directly into a data file and measure
— Survey Research
— The term questionnaire suggests a collection of questions, but typically questionnaire probably has many statements as questions.
— Why?
— Because researchers typically are interested in determining the extent to which respondents hold a particular attitude or perspective.
— Attitude – to agree or disagree with a specific statement ( yes or no )
— Perspective – strongly agree, agree disagree or strongly disagree
— Make you point clear.
¡ Ask your question clearly so the respondent knows what you want
Some researchers commonly get involved in responses of popular opinion.
What do you think about prison furloughs?
Vs.
A single answer response. Prison furloughs, a good idea? Or. Prison furloughs a bad idea?
— Short items are best
¡ The respondent should be able to read and answer the question quickly
÷ So short, quick questions with short quick responses should be your goal.
— Avoid Negative Items
— Don’t ask questions such as;
¡ Drugs such as marijuana should not be legalized
You are drawing a conclusion already and the respondent would not usually answer such as question.
— For each of the open- ended questions listed, construct a closed ended question that could be used in a questionnaire.
¡ A. what was your family’s total income last year?
— For each of the open- ended questions listed, construct a closed ended question that could be used in a questionnaire.
B. How do you feel about shock incarceration or boot camp programs?
— For each of the open- ended questions listed, construct a closed ended question that could be used in a questionnaire.
¡ C. how do people in your neighborhood feel about the police?
— For each of the open- ended questions listed, construct a closed ended question that could be used in a questionnaire.
D. what do you feel is the biggest problem facing this community?
— For each of the open- ended questions listed, construct a closed ended question that could be used in a questionnaire.
¡ E. how do you protect your home from a burglar?
— Finally
— Surveys tends to be high on reliability and generalization, but validity or validation can often be a weak point.
— How questions are asked is the single most important feature of survey research.
— Survey Research
— Open-ended questions
¡ What do you feel is the most important crime problem facing the police department
— Survey Research
— Closed-ended questions
¡ Useful for responses that you can put directly into a data file and measure
— Survey Research
— The term questionnaire suggests a collection of questions, but typically questionnaire probably has many statements as questions.
— Why?
— Because researchers typically are interested in determining the extent to which respondents hold a particular attitude or perspective.
— Attitude – to agree or disagree with a specific statement ( yes or no )
— Perspective – strongly agree, agree disagree or strongly disagree
— Make you point clear.
¡ Ask your question clearly so the respondent knows what you want
Some researchers commonly get involved in responses of popular opinion.
What do you think about prison furloughs?
Vs.
A single answer response. Prison furloughs, a good idea? Or. Prison furloughs a bad idea?
— Short items are best
¡ The respondent should be able to read and answer the question quickly
÷ So short, quick questions with short quick responses should be your goal.
— Avoid Negative Items
— Don’t ask questions such as;
¡ Drugs such as marijuana should not be legalized
You are drawing a conclusion already and the respondent would not usually answer such as question.
— For each of the open- ended questions listed, construct a closed ended question that could be used in a questionnaire.
¡ A. what was your family’s total income last year?
— For each of the open- ended questions listed, construct a closed ended question that could be used in a questionnaire.
B. How do you feel about shock incarceration or boot camp programs?
— For each of the open- ended questions listed, construct a closed ended question that could be used in a questionnaire.
¡ C. how do people in your neighborhood feel about the police?
— For each of the open- ended questions listed, construct a closed ended question that could be used in a questionnaire.
D. what do you feel is the biggest problem facing this community?
— For each of the open- ended questions listed, construct a closed ended question that could be used in a questionnaire.
¡ E. how do you protect your home from a burglar?
— Finally
— Surveys tends to be high on reliability and generalization, but validity or validation can often be a weak point.
—PowerPoint presentation on Measurement
— Measurement is difficult-
¡ To describe the measurement process and accurately record the results. You must go from having a vague idea about what you want to study to recognizing it and measuring tit in the real world.
— Measurement
— Conceptualize your study and set up a foundation of examination.
— Conceptions and Concepts
— Clarify abstract mental images are essential for measurement.
— Conceptions and Concepts
— When you hear the work “recidivism, what do you think of?
— Conceptions and Concepts
— Crime?
— Behavior?
— A Habit
— Conceptions and Concepts
— Mental image
¡ Although you think of crime, you really have different images of it. You need to focus your reader to what concepts about crime are you speaking of, and how does recidivism communicate in your idea of research.
— Conceptions
— Concepts are words or symbols in language that we use to represent mental images.
¡ Concepts are abstract because they are independent of the labels we assign them.
— Conceptions
— Crime is an abstract- this is a label representing mental images of illegal acts.
— Conceptions
— Crime are real events- however some only view crime from television. So their concept of crime maybe a mental image portrayed by television.
— Conceptions
— What mental images come to your mind about serious crime?
— Conceptions
— Murder
— Rape
— Bank robbery
— Airplane hijacking
— Conceptions
— What about a fight at a young age which results in a scar for life?
¡ Is that a serious crime?
Seriousness of crime and our mental images my vary depending on backgrounds and experiences.
— Conceptualization
— This is the process by which we specifically and precisely describe what we use to describe particular terms.
— Conceptualization
— So, describe specific terms in your papers and give meaning for those particular terms.
¡ The reader must understand those terms you are describing in your papers.
— Dimensions
— Describe the dimensions and illustrate how the concepts is more general.
¡ The seriousness of rape, is the mental anguish of the victim and what she/he is face with.
— Dimensions
— Dimensions in your papers should include;
¡ Indicators of physical injury, economic loss, or psychological consequences.
— Conceptual Order
— 1st a conceptual definition is a working definition specifically assigned to a term.
— Conceptual Order
— 2nd it is specific and defines 2 things
¡ 1st it serves as a specific working definition
¡ 2nd it focuses on observational strategy
— Working your way to measurement
— Conceptualization
— Recidivism
Module 8
—Research Methods —Asking Questions —Asking Questions --
How questions are asked is the single most important feature of survey research. —Survey Research —Open-ended questions ¡What do you feel is the most important crime problem facing the police department
—Survey Research —Closed-ended questions ¡Useful for responses that you can put directly into a data file and measure —Survey Research —The term questionnaire suggests a collection of questions, but typically questionnaire probably has many statements as questions. — —Why? — —Because researchers typically are interested in determining the extent to which respondents hold a particular attitude or perspective. — —Attitude – to agree or disagree with a specific statement ( yes or no )
—Perspective – strongly agree, agree disagree or strongly disagree — —Make you point clear. ¡Ask your question clearly so the respondent knows what you want — Some researchers commonly get involved in responses of popular opinion.
What do you think about prison furloughs?
Vs.
A single answer response. Prison furloughs, a good idea? Or. Prison furloughs a bad idea?
— —Short items are best ¡The respondent should be able to read and answer the question quickly ÷So short, quick questions with short quick responses should be your goal. —Avoid Negative Items —Don’t ask questions such as; ¡Drugs such as marijuana should not be legalized
You are drawing a conclusion already and the respondent would not usually answer such as question.
— —For each of the open- ended questions listed, construct a closed ended question that could be used in a questionnaire. ¡A. what was your family’s total income last year? — —For each of the open- ended questions listed, construct a closed ended question that could be used in a questionnaire. B. How do you feel about shock incarceration or boot camp programs?
— —For each of the open- ended questions listed, construct a closed ended question that could be used in a questionnaire. ¡C. how do people in your neighborhood feel about the police? — —For each of the open- ended questions listed, construct a closed ended question that could be used in a questionnaire. D. what do you feel is the biggest problem facing this community?
— —For each of the open- ended questions listed, construct a closed ended question that could be used in a questionnaire. ¡E. how do you protect your home from a burglar? —Finally —Surveys tends to be high on reliability and generalization, but validity or validation can often be a weak point. —
ASSIGNMENTS IN ETUDES> This information is to assist you through the course. Remember, you still need to complete a research paper. The paper must be over 10 pages and must contain the relevant elements of the previous modules. Remember, if you need help contact me.
Your introduction:
What is your name?
What is your educational goal?
What is your professional goal?
Answer these questions in etudes.org. Each student has an etudes account to access this information.
Research Paper- "Topic"
Your assignment will be to write 1 or 2 paragraphs on a research topic that you are interested in. The topic must be in criminal justice system and it really should interest you.
This topic will later be used to focus you on your research. So, give your thoughts so I can help you organize your thoughts throughout the semester
Module 2
Research Methods PP presentation (Students requested this be posted)
Introduce your topic Introduction most crucial part of your essay is the
“Introduction” It explains: How well your thoughts are put together How well organized your entire essay is If they don’t like what they see...well, they probably won’t read any further Introduction Research;
Notes and outline First, do some initial research, which should establish what it is you will be writing about, What issue you will argue for or against, and why you will take this position Research Then actively research by taking notes on your topic. Research Outline the ideas and arguments that you will make so that you’ll know what to include in your introduction. Mind mapping you should be able to roughly outline three to five ideas or arguments that you can successfully address in your research Indicate your topic you need to clearly indicate the topic (i.e., the subject matter) that you will be writing about.
Be careful that you do not confuse your topic with your thesis. you will need to briefly explain or define marijuana, because that is your topic. Foundation Set the foundation for the structure. After you have clearly stated your topic, you will need to address how you’ve organized the body of your essay. Foundation You should use the notes and outline you made during your initial research write a few sentences explaining the order in which your essay will be structured Foundation.
This will be your readers’ road map They will know where they will be going as they read and in what order your ideas will be presented. Thesis Writing the thesis; The thesis statement is where you will let your readers know what position you will take on your topic. Thesis don’t be shy: make a bold and factual statement that expresses your position. Introduction Details
An introduction must not be so detailed that it includes everything you want to say. However; Remember that you’re just introducing an idea or topic. Introduction A general rule to follow is that the introduction should be about 10% (or less) of your whole paper. Be Creative An introduction should be structured and follow a format, but that does not mean it has to be boring. Creative Make your reader want to read the entire essay. Creative Start with a quote that is related to your topic, and make sure it's a powerful attention getter Creative Start with a question, perhaps a question you had yourself before you began your initial research. Creative Begin with an interesting fact that is related to your topic. Creative Use an analogy, but make sure it is concise and easy to understand. You don't want to get too lengthy, because remember, your introduction should only be about 10% of your entire essay. Creative Try presenting a paradox or contradiction if it is related to your topic; readers are interested in the unusual and seemingly unanswerable.
Module 3
Basic Research Terms }Social Scientific Theory }Social scientific theory has to do with what is, not what it should be… }
Theory, Not Philosophy or Belief } A theory; –is a systematic explanation for the observed facts and laws that relate to a particular aspect of life
Field Research - –The direct observation of events in progress, it is frequently used to develop theories; Such as; survey research- used to reveal patterns to provide explanations. }Field Research }Once developed, can provide general statements about social life that are used to guide research. }
A theory from burglaries; more likely to break into nearby houses because they had become more familiar with the geographical area.) }
Hypothesis
A hypothesis is an expectation about the nature of things derived from a theory- } }Or a theory might contain the hypothesis “high school dropouts will have a higher delinquency rates compared to youths enrolled in high school. }This hypothesis can be tested through research. }Variables and Attributes }Attributes ◦Are characteristics or qualities that describe some object, such as a person –Married –Unemployed –Prisoners }Variables & Attributes }Variables ◦Are logical grouping of attributes –Males and females are attributes –Gender is the variable
Variables & Attributes }The variable occupation is composed of attributes such as a ◦Dentist ◦Professor ◦Truck driver }Variables & Attributes }A prior criminal record is a variable composed of a set of attributes such as; ◦Prior convictions ◦Prior arrests with convictions ◦Prior arrests without convictions ◦No prior arrests }Some Common Criminal Justice Concepts }Female }Probation }Thief }Gender }Sentence }Middle-aged }Auto theft }Occupation }2 different kinds of concept } }Variables }Attributes }2 different kinds of concepts }Variables } }2 different kinds of concepts }Attribute } } Female Probation Auto theft Thief }Variables and Relationships }A person’s attributes on one variable are expected to cause or encourage a particular attribute on another variable. }Variables and Relationships }A public defender seemed to cause a person to be sentenced to probation or prison. } }There is something about having a public defender rather to going to court with out one. ◦This is called a dependent variable. }Variables and Relationships }An independent variable; is sentence depends on the type of defense attorney. }Variables and Relationships Your theory is constructed in terms of variables.
It describes the associations that might logically be expected to exist between particular attributes of different variables.
Module 4
Agency Records, Secondary Data, Content Analysis
Introduction -Agency records, are considered secondary data, and content analysis do not require direct interaction with research subjects.
Criminal justice research uses data collected by state and local agencies such as courts, probation officers, corrections departments, juvenile authorities.
Content analysis research examining class of social artifacts, written documents or other types of messages.
Information collected by others is frequently used in criminal justice research, these are secondary analysis.
National institute of justice releases their data for public use. Usually this data is conducted by others. Someone else gathers the original data, usually for purpose that is different than our.
Content Analysis -data from agency records or archive may have originally been gathered in one of two ways
1. Published statistics and agency records are most common. BJS Bureau of Justice Statistics (prison populations)
2. Consumer Network Data Book. Summarizes known cases of identity theft and related fraud
Content Analysis
Sex offenders (Berenson and Appelbaum 2010)
Incarceration and general populations James Austin and associates (2007) Perception of crime problems individual behavior and criminal justice policy (Anderson and Bushman 2002)
Content Analysis - Recovery life history data -National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS)
Types of Agency Records - Researchers use a variety of published statistics and non-public agency records.
They fall in the following categories
Types of Agency Records
Published statistics
Nonpublic agency records
New data collected by agency staff for a specific research purpose
Published Statistics
Census Bureau
FBI
Administrative office of U.S. Courts
Federal Bureau of prisons
Census Bureau- (sampling surveys from other federal organizations)
Bureau of Justice Statistics
Published Statistics
Federal Criminal Case Processing- details on federal court activity.
Sourcebook of criminal Justice statistics- Summarized hundreds of criminal justice agencies, tables, and how states execute capital offenders.
Source book available on the web at www.albany.edu/sourcebook)
Published Statistics
Correctional Populations- examine trends in prison populations over time.
Uniform Crime Report –(UCR)
Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN)
Drug Use Forecasting (DUF)
Reliability & Validity
Understanding the details of how agency records are collected is the best guard against reliability and validity problems.
Fortunately, most published reports are regular data series and present basic information on definitions and collection procedure
Agency data are not designed for research. Agencies tend to collect data for their own use not for the use of researchers. Summary
Data in records produced by formal organizations may be the most common source of data in criminal justice research.
Many public organizations produce statistics and data for public record, and this data are often useful for criminal justice research.
Organizations keep nonpublic records for internal operation purposes, and these records are viable sources of data for criminal justice research.
Although agency records have many potential research uses, because they are not produced for purposes other than researched the may be unsuitable for a specific study.
The advantages and disadvantages of using secondary data or similar to those for agency records data produced and collected by a researcher may not match our needs.
End
Module 5
—Social Science Research —Involves three fundamental aspects ¡Theory ¡Data Collection and ¡Data analysis —Social Science Research —Social science theory addresses what is, ¡not what should be. —Social Science Research —Theory guides research. In grounded theory observations contribute to theory development. —Social Science Research —Social scientists are interested in explaining aggregates, not individuals (aggregates; collective, total , comprehensives)
—Social Science Research —Although social scientists observe people, they are primarily interested in discovering relationships that connect variables. (Variables- able or liable to change)
—Social Science Research —Explanations may be; — idiographic- ÷Idio (unique) —Nomothethic ÷To explain efficiently using one or a few explanatory factors —Social Science Research —Theories may be; Inductive or Deductive ¡Inductive- moves from being the specific to the general. From a set of particular observations to the discovery of a pattern that represents some degree of order among the varied events under examination. —Social Science Research —Deductive- reasoning- moves from the general to the specific; it moves from a pattern that might be logical or expected, to observations that test whether the expected pattern actually occur in the real world. —Social Science Research —Both Inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning are valid avenues for criminal justice research. —Social Science Research —Theories may be inductive or deductive —Data may be quantitative or qualitative ¡Quantitative; makes our observations and converts them to a numerical form. ¡Qualitative; if we say someone is witty - qualitative —Social Science Research Most explanatory social research uses a probabilistic model of causation.
X may be said to cause Y
If it is seen to have some influence on Y.
—Social Science Research —Three basic requirements to determine a causal relationship in scientific research ¡1 the independent variable must occur before the dependent variable. ¡2 the independent and dependent variables must be (empirically- observation materials) related to each other. ¡3the observation relationship cannot be explained away as the effect of another variable (something else) —Social Science Research —When scientists consider whether causal statements are true or false, they are concerned with the validity of causal inferences (assumption). —Social Science Research —A scientific realist approach to examining mechanisms in a idiographic and nomothethic approaches to causation. ÷Idiographic-Idio (unique)- ¢Nomothethic •
To explain efficiently using one or a few explanatory factors — — —Social Science Research —Units of analysis are the people or things who's characteristics researchers observe, describe and explain.
•The unit of analysis in criminal justice research is often the individual person, but it could also be a group, organization or social artifact. —Social Science Research —Researchers sometimes confuse units of analysis, resulting in ecological (natural) fallacy or the individualistic fallacy. —Social Science Research —Cross –sectional studies are those based on the observations made at one time. ÷Although such studies are limited by this characteristic, differences can often be made without processes that occur over time. —Social Science Research —Longitudinal studies are those which observations are made at many times. ÷- Such observations may be made of sample drawn from general populations were drawn from more specific sub-populations. --
Social Science Research —Retrospective studies can sometimes approximate longitudinal studies, but retrospective approaches must be used with care. —End --
Module 6
¨Evaluation Research and ¨Problem Analysis ¨Evaluation Research ¨Sometimes called program evaluation ¤Refers to the research purpose rather an a specific research method (The reason behind the search) ¨Evaluation Research ¨To evaluate effects of policy such as
Mandatory arrests for domestic violence Or sentencing laws ¨Evaluation Research ¨Another type of Evaluation Research is; Problem analysis helps public officials plan and select alternative actions for their programs.
Evaluation Research ¨Criminal justice agencies are expected to justify the effectiveness and cost of their actions. ¨Research ¨Justice agencies are linked to evidence used for planning and evaluation. ¨and have come to rely more on evidence based policy.
Research ¨Problem oriented guides summarized evidence concerning responses by police and others to problems.
Rapes on college campuses
Locations and circumstances of crimes problems
corrections, policies are increasing evaluated to sort out those that do in fact reduce re-offenders. ¨ ¨
Problem Analysis and evaluation research are used to develop justice policy and determine its impact.
¨Policy Process ¨Policy Process ¨Policy ¨Starts with a demand for a new policy or change an existing policy-
Newspaper stories about drug sentencing policies ¨ ¨Does out prosecutor seek equality in sentencing recommendations for white and African American drug defendants. ¨ ¨Who will review the sentencing recommendations ¨Where will they sit ¨What equipment will they use ¨How much time will it take them to review each report ¨Policy Outputs ¨Refers to what is actually produced ¨Final Stage ¨Question
Does the prosecutor’s review process actually eliminate disparities in sentencing? ¨ Policy impacts are fundamentally related to policy goal
Outputs embody the means to achieve desired policy goal
¨Policy Model ¨Simple cause and affect process ¨Policies ¨Policies are formulated to produce an effect or impact ¨ ¨If some policy action is taken, then we can expect some result to be produced. ¨ ¨Peter Rossi and associates (1999, 4: emphasis in original) define program evaluation as ¨ ¨“the use of social science research procedures to systematically assess the effectiveness of a social program. More specifically, evaluation researchers use social research methods to study, appraise and help improve social programs in all their aspects, including the diagnosis of social problems they address, their conceptualization and design, their implementation and administration , their outcomes and their efficiency.” ¨Program Evaluation ¨1. Are policies being implemented as planned? ¨2. Are policies achieving their intended goals'? ¨ ¨Assessment 1. Goals
What is the program intended to accomplish?
How do staff determine how well they have attained their goes?
Which goal/objective have been identified?
What measures of performance are currently used?
Are adequate measures available?
¨Assessment 2. Clients
¨Who is served by the program? ¨How do they come to participate? ¨Do they differ in systematic ways from nonparticipants? ¨Assessment 3. Organization and Operation
•Where are the services provided? ¨Are there important differences among sites? ¨Who provides the services? ¨What individuals or groups oppose the program or have been critical or it in the past? ¨
Assessment ¨4. History ¤How long has the program been operation? ¤How did the program come about? ¤Has the program grown or diminished in size and influence? ¤Have any significant changes occurred in the program recently? ¨Problem Analysis ¨
Problem Analysis and Scientific Realism- Problem Analysis coupled with scientific realism, helps public officials use research to select and assess alternative course of action. ¨Problem Analysis ¨Program evaluation differs from problem analysis- Problem analysis- time dimension, & where each activity takes place n ¨Problem Evaluation ¨Program Evaluation- Designs used in basic research are readily adapted for use for a program. Questions What kind of people do you arrest for misdemeanor domestic assault? Which kinds of people do you think would have higher risks of repeated violence? ¤ ¨Analysis ¨time dimension ¨where each activity takes place ¨Evaluation ¨Questions and ¨Answers ¨
Descriptions of APA formatting decisions
The title page should have the title of the paper centered on the page. The Short Title and page number appear at the top right of the title page. The student's name appears one double-space below the title. The institutional affiliation (name of the college or high-school for which the paper has been written) appears one double-space below student name.
The Short Title and the number 2 are typed in the upper right-hand corner of the page. The word Abstract is centered as the first line of type on this page.
The title of the paper appears (centered) one double-space below the Short Title. The first line of the body of the paper appears one double-space below the title.
Type the word References (Reference in the case of only one) centered at the top of the page. Double-space all reference entries. The initial line of each entry is indented about half an inch (hanging indent style).Headings
Probably three levels of headings will suffice for most college and high-school papers. (Notice the double-spacing within the headings. Bold and other font variants [color, fancy fonts, etc.] are neither required nor appropriate.)
The First Level, Centered with
Uppercase and Lowercase Typing
Second Level, Flush-Left, Underlined Headings
To double-space after a punctuation mark defeats that capability. If you are using a mono-space font (such as Courier), you may consider using two spaces after end-periods and colons, but consult your instructor first.
Exceptions:
· No space after internal periods in abbreviations (a.m., i.e., U.S.).
· No space after the colon in ratios (6:1)
Spacing and Punctuation
The APA Publication Manual now calls for one space to appear after all punctuation marks. This is undoubtedly in response to the capabilities of modern word-processing devices to determe the correct aesthetic distance between punctuation marks and subsequent letters. To double-space after a punctuation mark defeats that capability. If you are using a mono-space font (such as Courier), you may consider using two spaces after end-periods and colons, but consult your instructor first.
Exceptions:
· No space after internal periods in abbreviations (a.m., i.e., U.S.).
· No space after the colon in ratios (6:1)
Handling Quoted Material
· Short quotations (fewer than 40 words) are incorporated into the text and enclosed by double quotations marks (").
· Long quotations of 40 or more words are displayed in a double-spaced block of typewritten lines with no quotation marks. The APA suggests that you do not single space; however, some instructors will require that indented quotations be single-spaced, especially when quoting poetry, which loses some of its formal characteristics when double-spaced. Indent five spaces from the left margin and type the entire quotation on the indented margin without the usual opening paragraph indentation. If the quotation is more than one paragraph, indent the first line of the second and additional paragraphs five spaces from the already indented margin, approximately an inch from the left margin.
· If you have a quotation within a block quotation, enclose it in double (") quotation marks. If you have a quotation within a short quote (one incorporated within the text), enclose it within single quotation marks (').
· Ellipsis points are used to indicate omitted material. Type three periods with a space before and after each period to indicate omission within a sentence (…). To indicate an omission between sentences type a punctuation mark for the sentence followed by three spaced periods (. …) (? …) (! …). Your date processing software probably provides especially typed characters that will create ellipses that will not be broken, inappropriately, at the end of a line.
· When a period or comma occurs with closing quotation marks, place the period or comma within the closing quotation mark. Put any other punctuation mark outside the quotation marks unless that mark is part of the quoted material.
Making Corrections on the Manuscript
Nowadays, with the use of modern word processing equipment, making corrections after something is printed is usually unnecessary. Your paper should be — essentially — perfect. Do not sacrifice entire forests to avoid inserting a comma, however!
· Do not use correction paper, fluid, or tape to cover and type over an error.
· Insert a typed correction directly above the word or line to be corrected (not in the margin).
· Retype the page if it has many corrections.
· Renumber the pages if a page must be inserted or removed after the numbering is completed.
· Do not number inserted pages with, for example, "4a."
· Do not type vertically in the margin.
· Do not strike over a letter.
· Do not type inserts on slips and attach them to pages.
· Do not write on the manuscript.
ABOUT REFERENCES
Single-Author Book
& Part of a Book Alverez, A. (1970). The savage god: A study of suicide. New York: Random House.
Garner, B. A. (2003). Garner's Modern American Usage. New York: Oxford University Press.
Reference: Book with Two or More Authors Natarajan, R., & Chaturvedi, R. (2003). Geology of the Indian Ocean Floor. Hartford, CT: Merganser University Press.
Ligon, M., Carpenter, K., Brown, W., & Milsop, A. (1983). Computers in the world of business communications. Hartford, CT: Capital Press.
Book Without Author or Editor Listed Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary. (1961). Springfield, MA: G. & C. Merriam.
Multi-Volume Work Nadeau, B. M. & Darling, J. M. (Eds.). (1994–2003). Studies in the history of cutlery (Vols. 4–6). Utica, NY: Mohican Valley-River Press.
What if I'm using a quote that I discover in a SECONDARY RESOURCE
Secondary Resources O'Connor, C. O. & DeLoatch, K. L. (2003). Whatever happened to the humanities? In I. Rubenzahl (Ed.), Studies in Byzantine Intrigue (pp. 235–278). Hartford, CT: Merganser University Press.
Dictionary Shorter Oxford English dictionary (5th ed.).(2002). New York: Oxford University Press.
Reference: Dissertation or Dissertation Abstract When you have used an abstract of the dissertion found on microfilm in Dissertation Abstracts International (DAI). If you are using a microfilm source, include in parentheses at the end of your entry, the university microfilm number.
Darling, C. W. (1976). Giver of due regard: the poetry of Richard Wilbur. Dissertation Abstracts International, 44, 4465. (AAD44-8794)
Enrollment Classroom Lecture Like personal interviews and phone conversations, material presented in a classroom lecture is regarded as non-retrievable data. A lecture, therefore, should be cited within the text but not be included in your References. The model below could also be used for more formal lecture settings.
In an Introduction to Literature lecture at Capital Community College on April 14, 2004, Professor Charles Darling described William Carlos Williams' poem as a barnyard snapshot (C.W. Darling, ENG 102 lecture, April 14, 2004).
If the lecturer distributed material at the lecture, you could cite that resource in your References:
Darling, C.W. (2004, April). Images at Work in the Poetry of William Carlos Williams. Outline presented in a classroom lecture at Capital Community College, Hartford, CT.
Electronic and Online Resources
Electronic correspondences, such as e-mail or discussions on bulletin boards or discussion groups, is regarded by the APA as personal communication (like phone conversations or memos), because it is not recoverable by others. Personal communications are cited only within the text and not on the reference page.
However, if the information is, in fact, retrievable, the following elements are necessary for the reference page:
Author(s), I. (date —or "n.d." if not date is posted). Title of work. (Online), date retrieved. Name of Database or Internet address of the specific document. Specify URLexactly. [Do not end your entry with a period when ending with an URL.]
The date should be the year of publication or the most recent update. If the date of the source cannot be determined, provide the exact date you retrieved the information on the Internet.
The path information should be sufficient for someone else to retrieve the material. For example, specify the method used to find the material: the protocol (HTTP, Telnet, FTP, etc.), the directory, and the file name. Do not end the path statement with a period after a file name or Web address.
You can cite an entire Web site within your text, but do not include it in your list of References. For instance, you could say something incredibly profound you learned from this Web page, and cite the URL at the end of the paragraph (http://www.ccc.commnet.edu/apa/). If a line-break is necessary when you cite an URL, make the break immediately after a slash mark and carefully avoid the insertion of a hyphen where none is appropriate.
Electronic Database
Reference: Government Documents
Report from the Government Printing Office, corporate author.
Example:
National Institute of Mental Health. (1982). Television and behavior: Ten years of scientific progress (DHHS Publication No. A 82-1195). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Reports from a Document and Deposit Service (NTIS, ERIC) other than U.S. government
Examples:
Tandy, S. (1980). Development of behavioral techniques to control hyperaggressiveness in young children (CYC Report No. 80-3562). Washington, DC: Council on Young Children. (NTIS No. P880-14322).
Gottfredson, L. S. (1980). How valid are occupational reinforcer pattern scores? (Report No. CSOS-R-292). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University. Center for Social Organization of Schools. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 182 465)
Annotated Bibliography An annotated bibliography will have the same basic layout as a Reference page. There are three major differences, however. First, you can include in your bibliography works that you think would be useful to your reader that you might not have used in the writing of this particular paper or article. Second, you can break down the references into useful categories and arrange those categories in ways that you think would be helpful to your reader. Third, you can add commentary to the references, telling your reader the particular virtues (or, if necessary, the shortcomings) of that resource. Commentaries should be concise, economical summaries, written in sentence fragments; if related, fragments should be connected with semicolons. The commentary should begin on a new line, indented slightly from the preceding line.
Example:
National Institute of Mental Health. (1982). Television and behavior: Ten years of scientific progress (DHHS Publication No. A 82-1195). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Parenthetical Citation
The APA system of citing sources indicates the author's last name and the date, in parentheses, within the text of your paper.
A. A typical citation of an entire work consists of the author's name and the year of publication.
Example:
Charlotte and Emily Bronte were polar opposites, not only in their personalities but in their sources of inspiration for writing (Taylor, 1990).
Use the last name only in both first and subsequent citations, except when there is more than one author with the same last name. In that case, use the last name and the first initial.
B. If the author is named in the text, only the year is cited.
Example:
According to Irene Taylor (1990), the personalities of Charlotte. . .
C. If both the name of the author and the date are used in the text, parenthetical reference is not necessary.
Example:
In a 1989 article, Gould explains Darwin's most successful. . .
D. Specific citations of pages or chapters follow the year.
Example:
Emily Bronte "expressed increasing hostility for the world of human relationships, whether sexual or social" (Taylor, 1988, p. 11).
E. When the reference is to a work by two authors, cite both names each time the reference appears.
Example:
Sexual-selection theory often has been used to explore patters of various insect mating (Alcock & Thornhill, 1983) … Alcock and Thornhill (1983) also demonstrate …
F. When the reference is to a work by three to five authors, cite all the authors the first time the reference appears. In a subsequent reference, use the first author's last name followed by et al. (meaning "and others").
Example of a subsequent reference:
Patterns of byzantine intrigue have long plagued the internal politics of community college administration in Texas (Douglas et al., 1997)
When the reference is to a work by six or more authors, use only the first author's name followed et al. in the first and all subsequent reference. The only exceptions to this rule are when some confusion might result because of similar names or the same author being cited. In that case, cite enough authors so that the distinction is clear.
G. When the reference is to a work by a corporate author, use the name of the organization as the author.
Example:
Retired officers retain access to all of the university's educational and recreational facilities (Columbia University, 1987, p. 54).
H. Personal letters, telephone calls, and other material that cannot be retrieved are not listed in References but are cited in the text.
Example:
Jesse Moore (telephone conversation, April 17, 1989) confirmed that the ideas. …
I. Parenthetical references may mention more than one work, particularly when ideas have been summarized after drawing from several sources. Multiple citations should be arranged as follows.
Examples:
1. List two or more works by the same author in order of the date of publication:
(Gould, 1987, 1989)
2. Differentiate works by the same author and with the same publication date by adding an identifying letter to each date:
(Bloom, 1987a, 1987b)
3. List works by different authors in alphabetical order by last name, and use semicolons to separate the references:
(Gould, 1989; Smith, 1983; Tutwiler, 1989).
Difference Between MLA and APA • Categorized under Language | Difference Between MLA and APA
MLA vs. APA
There are distinct styles of writing research papers that are followed across the world. Most of the researchers follow mainly two types of writing format, namely MLA and APA. While research papers in the Humanities and Liberal Arts adhere to the MLA style, the papers in Social Sciences follow the APA style of writing.
What is the difference between these two styles? An APA style research paper includes the following sections: Title page, Abstract, Main Body and References. The Title page contains the paper title, byline and the institute/organization to which the author is affiliated to. The APA guidelines also emphasizes on the use of running head and page numbers on the Title page.
The Abstract begins with a new page. The title ‘Abstract’ should be written in the centre of the page. The Page Header should appear by default on the Abstract page. The content on this page should provide a concise summary of the key topics in the paper with a word count not exceeding 200. It is also a good practice to list the keywords at the end of the Abstract.
While writing the Main Body, the focus should be on the visual appeal of the content. The APA guidelines suggest usage of tables and graphs and other visual aids that are easy to decipher to support the content.
The Reference section should contain an alphabetical listing of all references that the author consulted during the research. The list of references must have a title which should be centered from the top of the page and should be double spaced.
In contrary to the APA style, the MLA style of writing doesn’t encourage the use of a separate Title page. The upper left-hand corner of the first page should contain the names of the author, instructor and the course apart from the date. The MLA guidelines emphasize on the use of double-spaced text in the first page.
The page numbers should appear on the upper right hand corner. The MLA style of writing encourages the use of numbered section headings in the main content. The list of references is provided in the Works Cited page after the content pages. The references are numbered and the author’s last name should be alphabetized. Here again, the use of double-spaced text is encouraged. The reference title should be underlined or enclosed in quotation marks.
Both MLA and APA styles of writing have their own unique features. There are researchers who advocate the MLA style of writing because it helps in easier organization of content and is the most common style used. However, there are also researchers who prefer the APA style because it focuses on presenting important scientific literature in a professional way.
Summary:
1.MLA style is preferred in Humanities and Liberal Arts category whereas APA style is used in Social Sciences.
2.MLA style does not include separate title page while APA style provides a separate title page.
3.References are listed in Work Cited page in MLA style whereas the APA style has a Reference page.
4.APA style focuses on supporting the content with visual aids whereas MLA style does not advocate the use of such aids.
Module 7
Begin Research Project-
Rubric for individual presentations/Written work/Tests
1. DEVELOPING- 1 to 3
(Student needs assistance with written or oral communications of their expressions of thought, no specific point of view is identified in presentation and expression of content is limited.)
2. EMERGING- 4 to 6
(Student provides a written or oral communications point, his/her point of view is identified, changes direction in thoughts, has limited expressions on content.)
3.ADVANCED- 7 to 9
(Student has a strong written or oral communications point of view, a convincing position and provides presentation elements with clarity of expression.)
Your Answers it to include:
Articulate facts with proper format and grammar, on which resource codes were used to cite proper probable cause progression.
a. Outline a progression from scholarly resources and related resource code books to develop proper probable cause progression as to affect an arrest with exceptions.
b. Use APA writing format
c. Insert citations, and number sources
d. References obtained from Scholarly sources
e. Use a minimum of 500 words to present your answer.
Grading Criteria for all work submitted- Written or Oral presentations
Emerging 1-3
New, novice demonstration of competency, many areas for skill development
Developing 4-6
Demonstrates some level of competency and areas for skill development
Advanced 7-9
Demonstrates significant level of competency and few areas for development
Presentation/ Mechanics- Required length, font, spelling, paragraph structure.
So many errors that it detract from the quality of the paper. The message is lost and no relevancy is associated with the topic.
Mechanical errors in many areas, interferes with topic and presentation.
Paper is free from errors. Meaning is clearly stated and presented with skill and clarity.
Content/
Information
All elements of the topic are discussed and presented.
None or some elements of the topic are discussed. None or some consideration given to major points.
Some topic areas are discussed however lacks all elements sufficient to discuss the topic.
Identified all elements of the topic are discussed. Provided practical knowledge of materials and presented in a coherent way.
Resources/
References
A reference list is used with articles used
Less than 3 references used in APA format.
Less than 5 references used in APA format.
More than 5 references used in APA format.
Plagiarism
No plagiarized papers will be accepted.
PowerPoint presentation "Asking Questions"
How questions are asked is the single most important feature of survey research.
— Survey Research
— Open-ended questions
¡ What do you feel is the most important crime problem facing the police department
— Closed-ended questions
¡ Useful for responses that you can put directly into a data file and measure
— Survey Research
— The term questionnaire suggests a collection of questions, but typically questionnaire probably has many statements as questions.
— Why?
— Because researchers typically are interested in determining the extent to which respondents hold a particular attitude or perspective.
— Attitude – to agree or disagree with a specific statement ( yes or no )
— Perspective – strongly agree, agree disagree or strongly disagree
— Make you point clear.
¡ Ask your question clearly so the respondent knows what you want
Some researchers commonly get involved in responses of popular opinion.
What do you think about prison furloughs?
Vs.
A single answer response. Prison furloughs, a good idea? Or. Prison furloughs a bad idea?
— Short items are best
¡ The respondent should be able to read and answer the question quickly
÷ So short, quick questions with short quick responses should be your goal.
— Avoid Negative Items
— Don’t ask questions such as;
¡ Drugs such as marijuana should not be legalized
You are drawing a conclusion already and the respondent would not usually answer such as question.
— For each of the open- ended questions listed, construct a closed ended question that could be used in a questionnaire.
¡ A. what was your family’s total income last year?
— For each of the open- ended questions listed, construct a closed ended question that could be used in a questionnaire.
B. How do you feel about shock incarceration or boot camp programs?
— For each of the open- ended questions listed, construct a closed ended question that could be used in a questionnaire.
¡ C. how do people in your neighborhood feel about the police?
— For each of the open- ended questions listed, construct a closed ended question that could be used in a questionnaire.
D. what do you feel is the biggest problem facing this community?
— For each of the open- ended questions listed, construct a closed ended question that could be used in a questionnaire.
¡ E. how do you protect your home from a burglar?
— Finally
— Surveys tends to be high on reliability and generalization, but validity or validation can often be a weak point.
— How questions are asked is the single most important feature of survey research.
— Survey Research
— Open-ended questions
¡ What do you feel is the most important crime problem facing the police department
— Survey Research
— Closed-ended questions
¡ Useful for responses that you can put directly into a data file and measure
— Survey Research
— The term questionnaire suggests a collection of questions, but typically questionnaire probably has many statements as questions.
— Why?
— Because researchers typically are interested in determining the extent to which respondents hold a particular attitude or perspective.
— Attitude – to agree or disagree with a specific statement ( yes or no )
— Perspective – strongly agree, agree disagree or strongly disagree
— Make you point clear.
¡ Ask your question clearly so the respondent knows what you want
Some researchers commonly get involved in responses of popular opinion.
What do you think about prison furloughs?
Vs.
A single answer response. Prison furloughs, a good idea? Or. Prison furloughs a bad idea?
— Short items are best
¡ The respondent should be able to read and answer the question quickly
÷ So short, quick questions with short quick responses should be your goal.
— Avoid Negative Items
— Don’t ask questions such as;
¡ Drugs such as marijuana should not be legalized
You are drawing a conclusion already and the respondent would not usually answer such as question.
— For each of the open- ended questions listed, construct a closed ended question that could be used in a questionnaire.
¡ A. what was your family’s total income last year?
— For each of the open- ended questions listed, construct a closed ended question that could be used in a questionnaire.
B. How do you feel about shock incarceration or boot camp programs?
— For each of the open- ended questions listed, construct a closed ended question that could be used in a questionnaire.
¡ C. how do people in your neighborhood feel about the police?
— For each of the open- ended questions listed, construct a closed ended question that could be used in a questionnaire.
D. what do you feel is the biggest problem facing this community?
— For each of the open- ended questions listed, construct a closed ended question that could be used in a questionnaire.
¡ E. how do you protect your home from a burglar?
— Finally
— Surveys tends to be high on reliability and generalization, but validity or validation can often be a weak point.
—PowerPoint presentation on Measurement
— Measurement is difficult-
¡ To describe the measurement process and accurately record the results. You must go from having a vague idea about what you want to study to recognizing it and measuring tit in the real world.
— Measurement
— Conceptualize your study and set up a foundation of examination.
— Conceptions and Concepts
— Clarify abstract mental images are essential for measurement.
— Conceptions and Concepts
— When you hear the work “recidivism, what do you think of?
— Conceptions and Concepts
— Crime?
— Behavior?
— A Habit
— Conceptions and Concepts
— Mental image
¡ Although you think of crime, you really have different images of it. You need to focus your reader to what concepts about crime are you speaking of, and how does recidivism communicate in your idea of research.
— Conceptions
— Concepts are words or symbols in language that we use to represent mental images.
¡ Concepts are abstract because they are independent of the labels we assign them.
— Conceptions
— Crime is an abstract- this is a label representing mental images of illegal acts.
— Conceptions
— Crime are real events- however some only view crime from television. So their concept of crime maybe a mental image portrayed by television.
— Conceptions
— What mental images come to your mind about serious crime?
— Conceptions
— Murder
— Rape
— Bank robbery
— Airplane hijacking
— Conceptions
— What about a fight at a young age which results in a scar for life?
¡ Is that a serious crime?
Seriousness of crime and our mental images my vary depending on backgrounds and experiences.
— Conceptualization
— This is the process by which we specifically and precisely describe what we use to describe particular terms.
— Conceptualization
— So, describe specific terms in your papers and give meaning for those particular terms.
¡ The reader must understand those terms you are describing in your papers.
— Dimensions
— Describe the dimensions and illustrate how the concepts is more general.
¡ The seriousness of rape, is the mental anguish of the victim and what she/he is face with.
— Dimensions
— Dimensions in your papers should include;
¡ Indicators of physical injury, economic loss, or psychological consequences.
— Conceptual Order
— 1st a conceptual definition is a working definition specifically assigned to a term.
— Conceptual Order
— 2nd it is specific and defines 2 things
¡ 1st it serves as a specific working definition
¡ 2nd it focuses on observational strategy
— Working your way to measurement
— Conceptualization
— Recidivism
Module 8
—Research Methods —Asking Questions —Asking Questions --
How questions are asked is the single most important feature of survey research. —Survey Research —Open-ended questions ¡What do you feel is the most important crime problem facing the police department
—Survey Research —Closed-ended questions ¡Useful for responses that you can put directly into a data file and measure —Survey Research —The term questionnaire suggests a collection of questions, but typically questionnaire probably has many statements as questions. — —Why? — —Because researchers typically are interested in determining the extent to which respondents hold a particular attitude or perspective. — —Attitude – to agree or disagree with a specific statement ( yes or no )
—Perspective – strongly agree, agree disagree or strongly disagree — —Make you point clear. ¡Ask your question clearly so the respondent knows what you want — Some researchers commonly get involved in responses of popular opinion.
What do you think about prison furloughs?
Vs.
A single answer response. Prison furloughs, a good idea? Or. Prison furloughs a bad idea?
— —Short items are best ¡The respondent should be able to read and answer the question quickly ÷So short, quick questions with short quick responses should be your goal. —Avoid Negative Items —Don’t ask questions such as; ¡Drugs such as marijuana should not be legalized
You are drawing a conclusion already and the respondent would not usually answer such as question.
— —For each of the open- ended questions listed, construct a closed ended question that could be used in a questionnaire. ¡A. what was your family’s total income last year? — —For each of the open- ended questions listed, construct a closed ended question that could be used in a questionnaire. B. How do you feel about shock incarceration or boot camp programs?
— —For each of the open- ended questions listed, construct a closed ended question that could be used in a questionnaire. ¡C. how do people in your neighborhood feel about the police? — —For each of the open- ended questions listed, construct a closed ended question that could be used in a questionnaire. D. what do you feel is the biggest problem facing this community?
— —For each of the open- ended questions listed, construct a closed ended question that could be used in a questionnaire. ¡E. how do you protect your home from a burglar? —Finally —Surveys tends to be high on reliability and generalization, but validity or validation can often be a weak point. —
ASSIGNMENTS IN ETUDES> This information is to assist you through the course. Remember, you still need to complete a research paper. The paper must be over 10 pages and must contain the relevant elements of the previous modules. Remember, if you need help contact me.
